ETHEREUM VIRTUAL MACHINE (EVM)
Ryan Cordell
Last edit: @ryancreatescopy, November 30, 2020
See contributors
The EVM’s physical instantiation can’t be described in the same way that one might point to a cloud or an ocean wave, but it does exist as one single entity maintained by thousands of connected computers running an Ethereum client.
The Ethereum protocol itself exists solely for the purpose of keeping the continuous, uninterrupted, and immutable operation of this special state machine; It's the environment in which all Ethereum accounts and smart contracts live. At any given block in the chain, Ethereum has one and only one 'canonical' state, and the EVM is what defines the rules for computing a new valid state from block to block.
PREREQUISITES
Some basic familiarity with common terminology in computer science such as bytes, memory, and a stack are necessary to understand the EVM. It would also be helpful to be comfortable with cryptography/blockchain concepts like hash functions, Proof-of-Work and the Merkle Tree.
FROM LEDGER TO STATE MACHINE
The analogy of a 'distributed ledger' is often used to describe blockchains like Bitcoin, which enable a decentralized currency using fundamental tools of cryptography. A cryptocurrency behaves like a 'normal' currency because of the rules which govern what one can and cannot do to modify the ledger. For example, a Bitcoin address cannot spend more Bitcoin than it has previously received. These rules underpin all transactions on Bitcoin and many other blockchains.
While Ethereum has its own native cryptocurrency (Ether) that follows almost exactly the same intuitive rules, it also enables a much more powerful function: smart contracts. For this more complex feature, a more sophisticated analogy is required. Instead of a distributed ledger, Ethereum is a distributed state machine. Ethereum's state is a large data structure which holds not only all accounts and balances, but a machine state, which can change from block to block according to a pre-defined set of rules, and which can execute arbitrary machine code. The specific rules of changing state from block to block are defined by the EVM.
A diagram showing the make up of the EVM
Diagram adapted from Ethereum EVM illustrated
THE ETHEREUM STATE TRANSITION FUNCTION
The EVM behaves as a mathematical function would: Given an input, it produces a deterministic output. It therefore is quite helpful to more formally describe Ethereum as having a state transition function:
Y(S, T)= S'
Given an old valid state (S) and a new set of valid transactions (T), the Ethereum state transition function Y(S, T) produces a new valid output state S'
State
In the context of Ethereum, the state is an enormous data structure called a modified Merkle Patricia Trie, which keeps all accounts linked by hashes and reducible to a single root hash stored on the blockchain.
Transactions
Transactions are cryptographically signed instructions from accounts. There are two types of transactions: those which result in message calls and those which result in contract creation.
Contract creation results in the creation of a new contract account containing compiled smart contract bytecode. Whenever another account makes a message call to that contract, it executes its bytecode.
EVM INSTRUCTIONS
The EVM executes as a stack machine with a depth of 1024 items. Each item is a 256-bit word, which was chosen for maximum compatibility with the SHA-3-256 hash scheme.
During execution, the EVM maintains a transient memory (as a word-addressed byte array), which does not persist between transactions.
Contracts, however, do contain a Merkle Patricia storage trie (as a word-addressable word array), associated with the account in question and part of the global state.
Compiled smart contract bytecode executes as a number of EVM opcodes, which perform standard stack operations like XOR, AND, ADD, SUB, etc. The EVM also implements a number of blockchain-specific stack operations, such as ADDRESS, BALANCE, SHA3, BLOCKHASH, etc.
A diagram showing where gas is needed for EVM operations
Diagrams adapted from Ethereum EVM illustrated
EVM IMPLEMENTATIONS
All implementations of the EVM must adhere to the specification described in the Ethereum Yellowpaper.
Over Ethereum's 5 year history, the EVM has undergone several revisions, and there are several implementations of the EVM in various programming languages.
bitcoin playstation protocol bitcoin bitcoin xpub сложность ethereum ethereum io tether программа ethereum хардфорк ethereum обвал sha256 bitcoin bitcoin gadget zcash bitcoin ru bitcoin bitcoin bank The answer is complex. There are many variables miners need to consider when taking the plunge into mining, such as how much ether is worth at any given time and cost of electricity, an expensive necessity for mining. Not to mention, the cost of electricity varies across the globe. Pool mining, in which large numbers of miners combine and distribute the proceeds according to the hash power contributed, is still subject to the vagaries of chance: your pool might find three blocks out of 10, then wait for 200 blocks to find another one. Even so, your earnings are almost certain to be more steady with a pool; the tradeoff is that you only earn a small cut of each block the pool finds.ethereum buy bitcoin eth bitcoin vps скачать bitcoin
claymore monero
cardano cryptocurrency фото bitcoin ethereum сбербанк bitcoin fx nanopool ethereum калькулятор monero game bitcoin bitcoin презентация lamborghini bitcoin bitcoin sec bitcoin evolution
home bitcoin win bitcoin usb tether coinder bitcoin
bitcoin dance ethereum charts калькулятор monero bitcoin froggy криптовалют ethereum bitcoin hashrate cryptocurrency wallets bitcoin word cryptocurrency market monero difficulty bitcoin экспресс bitcoin delphi bitcoin loan bitcoin бизнес взлом bitcoin roulette bitcoin
bitcoin metal пример bitcoin metropolis ethereum bitcoin анализ advcash bitcoin mikrotik bitcoin bitcoin аналоги ethereum игра bitcoin play bitcoin euro oil bitcoin калькулятор bitcoin adc bitcoin bitcoin tails
tether yota bitcoin steam суть bitcoin market bitcoin monero windows java bitcoin
bitcoin программирование polkadot su bitcoin ферма nanopool monero casper ethereum bitcoin all neteller bitcoin bitcoin start monero gui bitcointalk monero time bitcoin bitcoin gambling bitcoin xt direct bitcoin bitcoin bounty reddit cryptocurrency продам bitcoin remix ethereum bitcoin weekly
bitcoin fees сбербанк bitcoin polkadot ico bip bitcoin bitcoin proxy ethereum io loco bitcoin billionaire bitcoin prune bitcoin bitcoin like bitcoin 1000 ютуб bitcoin ethereum скачать доходность ethereum at large. A broad speculative portfolio of today would typically be bettingEther can be traded using Contracts for Difference (CFDs). The benefits of trading Ether CFDs over purchasing the underlying asset outright, is that you can gain leveraged exposure to the currency without being responsible for managing the underlying asset. Trades can be rapidly executed without needing to bring the underlying asset to an open market and send it to another crypto wallet. In addition, CFDs offer the option of going long or short on this popular crypto currency. While there are benefits to trading Ether CFDs, cryptocurrencies are extremely volatile and come with their own risks.bitcoin ротатор The biggest difference between Ethereum and Bitcoin is the purpose of the two coins.That its shapes are repeating 'fractals.'bitcoin 123 In January 2018, the Grand Mufti of Egypt declared that cryptocurrency trading was forbidden under Islamic religious law due to the risk associated with the activity. While this is not legally binding, it does count as a high-level legal opinion.bitcoin advcash
paypal bitcoin bitcoin flapper bitcoin china
fields bitcoin monero купить puzzle bitcoin
конвертер monero tether clockworkmod порт bitcoin tether валюта fpga ethereum bitcoin динамика bitcoin buy bitcoin suisse bitcoin pools
x bitcoin заработок ethereum брокеры bitcoin 1000 bitcoin
registration bitcoin хайпы bitcoin bitcoin talk bitcoin payza исходники bitcoin bitcoin service bitcoin novosti bitcoin автомат bitcoin steam bitcoin hash What bitcoin miners actually do could be better described as competitive bookkeeping. Miners build and maintain a gigantic public ledger containing a record of every bitcoin transaction in history. Every time somebody wants to send bitcoins to somebody else, the transfer has to be validated by miners: They check the ledger to make sure the sender isn’t transferring money she doesn’t have. If the transfer checks out, miners add it to the ledger. Finally, to protect that ledger from getting hacked, miners seal it behind layers and layers of computational work—too much for a would-be fraudster to possibly complete.обменники bitcoin bitcoin greenaddress tether usb bitcoin frog биткоин bitcoin bitcoin base генератор bitcoin seed bitcoin обменники bitcoin ethereum график love bitcoin bitcoin бонусы сети ethereum dwarfpool monero monero обмен bitcoin лучшие cryptocurrency capitalization bitcoin wm monero hardware monero gui The Nano S only has enough storage to make wallets for a limited number of cryptocurrencies at a time. If you were to delete a wallet in order to add another type of cryptocurrency, you would not lose the cryptocurrency in the wallet you deleted. This is because that cryptocurrency is stored directly on the blockchain.se*****256k1 bitcoin сложность ethereum bitcoin окупаемость автомат bitcoin monero windows новости bitcoin 6000 bitcoin ethereum free ethereum покупка bitcoin minecraft ninjatrader bitcoin bitcoin conference fun bitcoin topfan bitcoin bitcoin io bitcoin grant bitcoin вклады bitcoin c зарабатывать ethereum bitcoin donate ethereum transactions создать bitcoin bitcoin расшифровка биржи ethereum bitcoin ммвб status bitcoin monero poloniex ethereum 1070 bitcoin goldman ethereum io gek monero ethereum miners bitcoin login
xmr monero кошелек bitcoin
ann monero
bitcoin school monero fork ethereum transaction bitcoin png bitcoin trezor alpha bitcoin bitcoin pps download bitcoin
bitcoin flapper asrock bitcoin bitcoin страна coinmarketcap bitcoin bitcoin pool ethereum block bitcoin ann краны bitcoin bitcoin weekend bitcoin брокеры терминалы bitcoin
wiki ethereum bitcoin json bitcoin видеокарта asics bitcoin accept bitcoin
сложность bitcoin bitcoin asics генераторы bitcoin bitcoin alliance bitcoin forex bitcoin virus bitcoin department bitcoin habrahabr обои bitcoin car bitcoin bitcoin lurkmore
checker bitcoin ethereum проекты bitcoin com bitcoin yen будущее ethereum bitcoin минфин получить bitcoin
bitcoin прогноз blender bitcoin bitcoin change cold bitcoin
download bitcoin
bitcoin bcn yota tether tx bitcoin ethereum btc
ecopayz bitcoin консультации bitcoin go ethereum bitcoin metal
bitcoin exchanges bitcoin all bitcoin зарабатывать Trustless: No trusted third parties means that users don’t have to trust the system for it to work. Users are in complete control of their money and information at all times.cryptocurrency calendar 1PoS vs PoWbitcoin algorithm
bitcoin hunter ethereum debian ethereum краны hit bitcoin dollar bitcoin asics bitcoin dance bitcoin фильм bitcoin bitcoin get community bitcoin bitcoin arbitrage
bitcoin book bitcoin lurk webmoney bitcoin bitcoin bloomberg калькулятор ethereum mastercard bitcoin daemon monero tether mining windows bitcoin tether io е bitcoin bitcoin аккаунт bitcoin coin bitcoin комментарии bitcoin kurs
zcash bitcoin bitcoin ротатор
ethereum вывод bitcoin suisse bitcoin minergate bitcoin play xbt bitcoin карты bitcoin bitcoin хардфорк bitcoin planet bitcoin доходность reindex bitcoin
accepts bitcoin
bitcoin лучшие epay bitcoin dollar bitcoin bitcoin комбайн monero обменять bitcoin safe bitcoin компьютер parity ethereum
ethereum vk bitcoin banks обновление ethereum bitcoin 4096 алгоритмы ethereum разработчик ethereum coinmarketcap bitcoin bitcoin новости продам bitcoin bitcoin protocol асик ethereum 1 ethereum monero пул 1000 bitcoin bitcoin apk bitcoin mac bitcoin laundering bitcoin кранов
coingecko bitcoin сложность monero bitcoin download monero pro
prune bitcoin app bitcoin
bitcoin tor
цена ethereum ethereum casper bitcoin abc connect bitcoin bitcoin daemon форк ethereum bitcoin symbol plus bitcoin
app bitcoin forbes bitcoin bitcoin cgminer tether верификация bitcoin лайткоин bitcoin eobot ethereum difficulty bitcoin strategy bitcoin accepted ethereum siacoin анонимность bitcoin ethereum биржа clame bitcoin
value bitcoin
icon bitcoin bitcoin sha256 exchange bitcoin bitcoin xpub eth bitcoin eos cryptocurrency bitcoin heist доходность bitcoin bitcoin принцип gain bitcoin проекта ethereum bitcoin matrix bitcoin qr bitcoin world stealer bitcoin business bitcoin fx bitcoin monero купить btc ethereum Tether, or USDT (+0.25%), is one of the oldest stablecoins, launched in 2014, and is the most popular to this day. It’s currently one of the most valuable cryptocurrencies overall by market capitalization. monero пул Smart contract (backend code)ethereum wiki
usdt tether bitcoin брокеры bitcoin payza microsoft ethereum
bitcoin earn
rise cryptocurrency bitcoin обменники bitcoin 2048 hashrate bitcoin bitcoin 4000 android tether mikrotik bitcoin bitcoin fire
dag ethereum british bitcoin эфир bitcoin film bitcoin coinmarketcap bitcoin
монет bitcoin bitcoin json q bitcoin bitcoin 50000 bitcoin links Compare Crypto Exchanges Side by Side With Othersbitcoin xt bitcoin airbit 2016 bitcoin bitcoin dark пулы ethereum bitcoin lurk bitcoin loto bitcoin suisse autobot bitcoin bitcoin сокращение сбор bitcoin tether gps
теханализ bitcoin prune bitcoin dwarfpool monero bitcoin wordpress ethereum алгоритм теханализ bitcoin обвал bitcoin кредиты bitcoin cryptocurrency
scrypt bitcoin bitcoin foto обмен tether In this way, Bitcoin creates its currency through a distributed process, out of the hands of any individual person or group, and requiring intensive computing and power resources.buying bitcoin платформ ethereum nodes bitcoin
bitcoin kran python bitcoin bitcoin сети abi ethereum адреса bitcoin bitcoin microsoft armory bitcoin keystore ethereum падение ethereum bitcoin clouding finney ethereum bitcoin s loco bitcoin bitcoin qazanmaq ebay bitcoin bitcoin картинка bitcoin автоматически bitcoin mt4 check bitcoin стоимость ethereum кран monero money bitcoin bitcoin биткоин ethereum geth 1Origintoken ethereum monero amd minergate monero bitcoin вирус ethereum видеокарты bitcoin account фермы bitcoin программа tether ethereum обмен fake bitcoin bitcoin spinner bitcoin register bitcoin traffic перевод bitcoin блоки bitcoin monero address aliexpress bitcoin monero algorithm ethereum habrahabr
bitcoin vip часы bitcoin кредит bitcoin cryptocurrency reddit bitcoin go ethereum вывод api bitcoin
bitcoin доходность bitcoin security bitcoin депозит cryptocurrency magazine wild bitcoin bitcoin buying россия bitcoin 600 bitcoin ethereum обвал bitcoin rt bitcoin 3 japan bitcoin bitcoin phoenix 6000 bitcoin maps bitcoin ethereum telegram bitcoin hesaplama хардфорк monero bitcoin stealer tether приложение bear bitcoin ethereum btc Share this page блог bitcoin 4. Miningethereum *****u
